Introduction To Psychology

Contents:

1)Definition of psychology
2)What is Psychology ?
3) History of Psychology
4)Branches of Psychology

Definition of psychology: 

Psychology is the scientific study of  behavior and mental processes .

Psychology is the scientific study of human mind and behaviour.

What is Psychology ??

Psychology is  an ancient Greek word made up of psyche which is the mind or 

the soul while logy means study. psychology is the study of the mind or the soul. Many psychologists prefer to focus on the mind and leave the issue of the soul to theology and the great religions of the world. Though it is largely concerned with the study of humans, the behaviour of animals is also studied. In fact, many of the earlier theories of psychology originated from studies conducted with rats, pigeons, cats, monkeys and dogs. These theories have been used to describe human behaviour and have influenced educational practice.The  American Heritage Dictionary defines psychology as the science that deals with mental processes and behavior. It also includes the study of the emotionaland behavioral characteristics of an individual or group. In short, psychology may bedefined as the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes.  There are 3 key word and phrases in these definitions, namely; scientific, behaviour and mental processes. 

 The first is the term scientific which means studies using the scientific method. 

The scientific method proposed by  Dewey (1922)  comprises the following 

steps: 

1. A statement of the problem and identification of the hypotheses to be 

tested. 

2. The design of the study and employment of data collection techniques to 

answer the research question or hypothesis. 

3. The collection and analysis of data. 

4. Report  of  the findings and decide whether  to accept or reject  the 

hypothesis.

 The second term is behaviour which relates to whatever activity (by a human or animal) that can be observed, measured and recorded. Behaviour is also observed to occur when individuals speak or write something. For example, a person who records his or her fear or attitude is a manifestation of behaviour.

 The third term is mental processes include all processes involved in thinking, memory, learning, attitudes, emotions and so forth. This has become the focus of many psychologists but the problem is that these processes cannot be observed and are difficult to record and measure accurately. [This is an issue that will be discussed later in the chapter].

b) The Psychologist and the Scientist Both the psychologist studying human behaviour and the scientist studying the physical word use the scientific method. However, for the psychologist, humans possess neither the simplicity nor the predictability of the physical world. Even the behaviour of  a cat or dog is unpredictable! The physicist, the chemist and even the biologist, employing the scientific method has been able to discover great theories and laws explaining the behaviours of physical matter, molecules, cells and so forth. 

These explanations are more stable, precise and replicable. The psychologist is still struggling with having to discover a single, precise and magnificent law explaining the behaviour of a human or even a rat.Even though the scientific method is widely used in psychology, researchers 

have to make various kinds of inferences and interpretations. Why? This is because the subjects studied are humans. Compared to cells or chemicals studied by scientists, humans are comparatively less stable . Studying the behaviours of humans is more complicated because of the influence of extraneous variables that are difficult to control. Oftentimes  it  requires researchers to make inferences or interpretation because the data is comparatively less clear-cut.

 History of Psychology:

a) The Roots of Psychology

Psychology is interested in the nature of humans and how human beings 

function. However, psychology is by no means the only field of inquiry that seeks answers to the puzzles of human nature. The roots of psychology can be traced to the ancient  philosopher  based on their early records to understand psychology.  The earliest roots of modern psychology can be traced to two different approaches to human behaviour: philosophy and physiology . Philosophy explores and  attempts to explain human nature through introspection or self-examination of one‟s experiences. Through a process of self-questioning and asking others questions, philosophers have attempted to unravel how we think, how we learn, how we gain knowledge and how we use our experiences. Physiology is the study of the human 

body and through observation early Greek scholars attempted to understand the workings of the human body.

Early philosophers were most concerned with nature of knowledge or epistemology. In  epistemology you ask such questions as: What is knowledge?  What are the origins of knowledge? What does it mean to know?

 Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.), known as the father of modern  medicine argued that there was a close connection between the mind and the body. He proposed that mental illness was not caused by demons but caused by physical malfunctions. By dissecting human cadavers and operating on living 

organisms, he concluded that the mind controlled the human body. He was the first to suggest that the mind resides in the brain.

 Plato (427-347 B.C.) who lived  at  about the same time  also subscribed to 

Hippocrates‟ view that the mind and body were separate and the mind was located in the brain. 

 He believed that reality did not lie in concrete objects but are represented 

in abstract form in our minds. In other words, when we see a chair, the 

„real‟ chair exists in our minds. Plato reasoned that the head is the seat of 

the mind. 

 Plato was a rationalist who  believed that knowledge is gained through 

thinking and analysing in an effort to understand the world and people's 

relationship to it.

 The mind and body interact with one another but they are essentially 

different. The mind is superior to the body. Truth is found in our thoughts 

(via introspection) not through our senses (via observation). 

Plato's view formed the foundation for theorising about psychological 

processes, an activity that may or may not lead to subsequent empirical 

investigation. 

 Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) who was Plato‟s student disagreed with him on many points. He argued that the mind and body were  NOT separate and felt that the mind and body are one and the same.

  

 He believed that we understand the mind by studying the body and that we 

rely on observation of concrete objects and actions rather than on our own 

thoughts (introspection) to discover truth.

 He argued that that reality lies only in the concrete world of objects that 

we apprehend through our senses.

 Aristotle was an empiricist who believed  that knowledge is gained by 

experience, observation and experimentation. Aristotle's view formed the 

foundation for the methods of empirical psychological research. 

 Ibn Sina (980-1037), a Muslim philosopher famous for his works on medicine viewed the human being as consisting of both hidden (sirr) and open (alin) elements.  The hidden part consists of the powers of the mind while the open part is the human body and its organs (Abd al-Rahman al Naqib, 1993). The powers of the mind or mental faculties are classified 

into three groups:

 First, the group of vegetative faculties, in which humans and plants both share. They are concerned with the survival of the human being, growththrough nutrition, and preservation of the species through 

reproduction. They comprise 3 faculties: feeding, growth and reproduction.

 Second, the group of faculties shared by humans and animals. They 

comprise two faculties. One is the perceptive faculty of the exterior world 

though the five senses – sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch. The other 

faculty is directed from within, by way of common sense, imagination, 

memory and reflection. 

 Third, the group of faculties which distinguish human beings from animals. They comprise two faculties: an active faculty directing the human‟s practical conduct, and a cognitive faculty directing his or her intellectual conduct. The first is practical and the second is contemplative.

There seems to be consensus among these early philosophers that the mind and body relationship is important is determining human behaviour. Most psychologists today agree that the concept of mind and body have merit. But, more important is to provide empirical evidence to confirm the relationship between mind and body (The History of Psychology, 2006).  

b) The Beginnings of Modern Psychology

  Rene Descartes (1596-1650), a French mathematician and philosopher, took upthe  viewpoint that introspection and reflection are  investigatory methods     

superior to observation. Descartes revived the Platonic ideas of mind-body       

dualism and innate (versus acquired) knowledge. 

 He said that what separates humans from animals is that humans have a 

non-material, spiritual mind and a material body. The human mind and its 

powers were supreme. 

 He is known for coining the famous phrase  "Cogito ergo sum" (I think 

therefore I am). 

 Though he gave supremacy to the mind, he agreed that the body could 

influence the mind. He viewed the mind as superior to the body, and that

there is a two way interaction between mind and body 

 John Locke (1632-1704), an Englishman, believed that the interaction between 

mind and body is an equal relationship between two aspects of the same unified 

phenomenon. 

 He argued that the mind depends on the body through the senses for its 

information while the body depends on the mind to process and store 

sensory experiences for later use. 

 He was also an empiricist and believed that humans are born without knowledge, which is subsequently acquired through experience and empirical observation. He proposed the term tabula rasa (blank slate) to describe this condition. Life and experience, according to Locke, "write" 

knowledge on each of us.

 Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), a German philosopher, began the process of trying to reconcile or synthesize the competing viewpoints of  mind  and  body. He redefined the mind-body question by asking how the mind and body are related rather than whether the mind is in control. 

 Kant proposed that humans have a set of faculties or mental powers  - senses, understanding, and reasoning. These faculties working together control and provide a link between mind and body thus integrating the 

two. 

 Kant believed that to understand the mental faculties we must use both rationalistic and empirical approaches. 

 He believed that there were two types of knowledge: experiential which he 

called  a posteriori knowledge  – meaning from afterward (after the fact) 

and a priori (from beforehand) or general knowledge that exists regardless 

of one's experience.

 An example of the latter type of knowledge would be our knowledge of 

time. He argued  that understanding requires both types of knowledge; a

priori knowledge permits us to make use of a posteriori knowledge. 

 For example, with respect to time, we link together our fleeting sensations 

into a seemingly continuous stream of existence in which one event precedes and causes another event (cause and effect relationships). 

Understanding involves both nature (innate concepts and abilities) and 

nurture (knowledge gained through experience). 

The issues confronted by philosophers, physicians, and psychologists are so 

intertwined that when psychology was starting out as a field of study in the late 1800's 

it was viewed by some as a branch of philosophy and by others as a branch of 

medicine. Gradually the psychological branches of philosophy and medicine broke away from their parent disciplines and psychology increasingly became a distinct, unified scientific discipline focused on the study of the mind and behaviour.

Contemporary psychology continues to wrestle with the same issues that 

philosophers and physiologists wrestled with. As you explore the field you will hear this continuing  debate.  Most philosophers agree that  human behaviour and mental processes synchronise to  adapt to the environment. Charles Darwin in his theory of natural selection suggested that only those organisms that adapt well to their environment thrive. Humans, thus far, both as a species and as individuals have 

adapted and thrived.

Branches of Psychology

Psychology is a remarkably diverse subject, which is why a number of different branches have emerged to explore different topics and perspectives. Explore some of the many branches of psychology and learn more about what each one has to offer, including forensic psychology, cognitive psychology, human factors and many more. 

Abnormal Psychology
Behavioral Psychology
Biopsychology
Cross-Cultural Psychology
Forensic Psychology
Clinical Psychology
Cognitive Psychology
Health Psychology
I/O Psychology
Human Factors Psychology
Comparative Psychology
Developmental Psychology
Educational Psychology
Personality Psychology
Social Psychology
Sports Psychology
Positive Psychology

•Abnormal Psychology

Abnormal psychology is the branch of psychology that looks at psychopathology and abnormal behavior. The term covers a broad range of disorders, from depression to obsession-compulsion to sexual deviation and many more. Counselors, clinical psychologists, and psychotherapists often work directly in this field.

•Behavioral Psychology

Behavioral psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on observable behaviors. Conditioning, reinforcement and punishment are key concepts used by behaviorists.

•Biopsychology

While our minds plays a role in our physical well-being, our biological processes also influence our mental health.

•Cross-Cultural Psychology

Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at how cultural factors influence human behavior.

•Forensic Psychology

Forensic psychology is the branch of psychology that deals with the intersection of psychology and the law.

•Clinical Psychology

Clinical psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders.

•Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that explores internal states including attention, thinking, and decision-making.

•Health Psychology

Health psychology focuses on promoting health as well as the prevention and treatment of disease and illness.

•I/O Psychology

Industrial-organizational psychology is concerned with the study of workplace behavior.

•Human Factors Psychology

Human factors is the branch of psychology concerned with applying psychological principles to product design, usability issues, human-computer interaction and ergonomics

•Comparative Psychology

Comparative psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of animal behavior. The study of animal behavior can lead to a deeper and broader understanding of human psychology

•Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology is concerned with the lifespan of individuals. Like theories of child development, intellectual development, cognitive development, and more

•Educational Psychology

Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with schools, teaching psychology, educational issues, and student concerns. Find more information about educational psychology

•Personality Psychology
Personality Psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with How do our personalities develop?

Social Psychology

•Social psychology seeks to explain and understand social behavior.

•Sports Psychology

Sports psychology is the study of how psychology influences sports, athletic performance, exercise and physical activity.

•Positive Psychology

Positive psychology is a branch of psychology focused on understanding human well-being and happiness.

REFERENCES:

 Abd al-Rahman al Naqib (1993). Ibn Sina. Prospects: The Quarterly Review 

of Comparative Education. XXIII, 1 &2. vol. 93. 53-69.

 Bruner, J. (1960). The process of education. Boston: Wiley.

 Christensen, L. (1988). Experimental Methodology. San Francisco: Wiley.

 Dewey, J. (1922). Human Nature and Conduct. New York: Henry Holt and 

Company.

 History of Psychology:  A TimeLine of psychological ideas (2006). Marcos 

Emanoel Pereira Universidade Federal da Bahia, Brazil. 

 Hunt, M. (1993). The Story of Psychology, New York: MacMillan.

 Saljo, R. (1979). Learning in the learner's perspective: I. Some common-sense 

conceptions. Reports from the Institute of Education. University of 

Gothenberg, 76. 

 Lefrancois,  GH. (1982),  Psychology for Teaching, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth 

Publishing Company.

 Levin, J. (2004). Functionalism. Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.

       http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/functionalism/

 Vernon, D. (2008).  What is cognition? One view of cognitive systems. 

Khalifa University of Science, Technology, and Research UAE 

 Wade, C. & Tavris, C. (2002). Psychology (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:  

             Prentice Hall.

 Wagner, K (2008). What is cognition? About.com: Psychology. The New 

York Times Company.